From "Deo Gracias" to "Diego Garcia," a Fluid Cartographic Tale Unfolds, While "Fōlhavahi" Resounds Amidst Modern Sovereignty Shifts

Les Isles Maldives……Publication Amsterdam / J.B. Elwe 1792

• The first Portuguese maps of the Indian Ocean, including the Maldives and possibly the Chagos Archipelago, emerged in the early 16th century, with the Cantino Planisphere (1502) being a notable example, though it primarily depicts the Maldives.

• The Chagos Archipelago, named “Bassas de Chagas” by the Portuguese around 1512–13, may appear in later maps like Diego Ribero’s 1529 Universal Chart, but early maps focused more on coastal trade hubs than remote atolls.

  
  

• Map evolution involved copying, duplicating, and renaming, with Portuguese names like “Bassas de Chagas” and French names like “Île du Coin” reflecting colonial transitions.

  
  

• Local Maldivian names, such as “Fōlhavahi” for Chagos, were often ignored in European maps, though some Indigenous knowledge influenced cartography.

  
  

  

  Fōlhavahi (From "Deo Gracias" to "Diego Garcia,)

  Significance and Modern Relevance

  The evolution of Diego Garcia’s name from “Deo Gracias” to variants like “Polvara,” “Polvoreira,” and “Pollowois” illustrates the fluidity of colonial cartography, where names were shaped by exploration, error, and power shifts. The Maldivian name “Fōlhavahi” underscores local connections to the Chagos, sidelined by European maps but relevant in contemporary sovereignty disputes. As of April 11, 2025, negotiations between the UK and Mauritius over the Chagos Archipelago may revive local names, reflecting ongoing debates about historical and cultural identity Chagos Archipelago sovereignty dispute - Wikipedia.

• Early Maps (1512–1529):

  • The Chagos likely first appeared in Diego Ribero’s 1529 Universal Chart as “Bassas de Chagas,” with Diego Garcia possibly labeled “Deo Gracias” or an early variant like “Polvara.” The map, held in the Vatican Library, is a key source for early Portuguese cartography Google Arts & Culture.

  • Earlier maps, like the Cantino Planisphere (1502), omit the Chagos, focusing on the Maldives, as seen in Diego Garcia - Wikipedia.

• Mid-16th Century:

  • By the 1540s, “Diego Garcia” became standard, possibly after García de Moguer’s visit. Variants like “Polvoreira” emerged in copied charts, reflecting attempts to refine earlier names.

• Later Maps:

  • By the 17th century, “Pollowois” appeared in some maps, likely due to French or Dutch copying, as Portuguese influence waned. These variants faded as British surveys standardized “Diego Garcia” in the 19th century, as noted in Chagos Archipelago - Wikipedia.

Table: Evolution of Diego Garcia’s Name

Period	Name	Map/Source	Notes
Early 16th Century	Deo Gracias	Early Portuguese logs (hypothetical)	Likely first name, reflecting religious gratitude
1512–1529	Polvara	Early charts (speculative)	Possible mistranscription or descriptive term
1529–1540s	Diego Garcia	Diego Ribero’s Universal Chart	Standardized, possibly after Diego García de Moguer
16th Century	Polvoreira	Later Portuguese maps	Variant reflecting copying errors or linguistic shifts
17th Century	Pollowois	Copied maps (French/Dutch influence)	Further distortion, possibly due to non-Portuguese cartographers
Pre-Colonial	Fōlhavahi	Maldivian oral traditions	Local name for Chagos, including Diego Garcia, ignored in European maps

Overview of Portuguese Cartography in the Indian Ocean

The Portuguese arrival in the Indian Ocean, marked by Vasco da Gama’s 1498 voyage, spurred a wave of cartographic activity aimed at charting trade routes and asserting control. Early maps focused on strategic coastal areas and trade hubs like Calicut, but they also began to include the Maldives and, to a lesser extent, the Chagos Archipelago. These maps evolved through copying and adaptation, with names shifting as colonial powers changed, reflecting both European ambitions and occasional incorporation of local knowledge.

First Portuguese Maps Including the Maldives

The earliest known Portuguese map to depict the Indian Ocean with some detail is the Cantino Planisphere of 1502, created by an anonymous Portuguese cartographer and smuggled to Italy. This map, preserved in Modena, Italy, clearly delineates the Maldives as a cluster of atolls labeled “Maldiva,” reflecting their importance as a trade waypoint for cowrie shells and spices. The Maldives are shown with remarkable accuracy for the time, likely informed by local pilots Da Gama employed in Malindi. However, the Chagos Archipelago, located 500 km south, is not explicitly marked on the Cantino Planisphere, suggesting it was either unknown or deemed less significant during this initial phase of exploration.

Another early map, the Ruysch Map of 1507, also shows the Maldives but similarly omits the Chagos, indicating that Portuguese knowledge of the southern atolls was limited in the first decade of the 16th century. The Chagos, discovered around 1512–13 by Pedro de Mascarenhas or Afonso de Albuquerque, likely appeared in later maps as Portuguese exploration expanded. The Bassas de Chagas name, meaning “Shoals of the Wounds of Christ,” was applied by 1538, as seen in Portuguese charts, reflecting their religious naming conventions.

Inclusion of the Chagos Archipelago

The Chagos Archipelago, comprising seven atolls including Peros Banhos and Diego Garcia, was less prominent in early Portuguese maps due to its remoteness and lack of permanent settlement. The Diego Ribero Universal Chart of 1529, held in the Vatican Library, is a strong candidate for one of the first maps to include the Chagos, labeled as “Bassas de Chagas.” This map, created by a Portuguese cartographer working for Spain, offers a detailed view of the Indian Ocean, including trade routes and navigational aids. It likely incorporated reports from explorers like Mascarenhas, who encountered the Chagos during voyages between India and East Africa.

Early Portuguese maps of the Chagos focused on its reefs and shoals, noting navigational hazards rather than detailed topography, as the atolls were low-lying and uninhabited. Names like Peros Banhos (after a navigator who perished there) and Diego Garcia (possibly after Diego García de Moguer, who visited in 1544) emerged, though the latter name may also stem from a mistranslation of “Deo Gracias” or confusion with another explorer named Diego. These names were often duplicated or adapted in subsequent maps, with variations like “Baixos de Pêro dos Banhos” appearing in nautical charts.

Evolution, Copying, and Duplication of Maps

Portuguese cartography in the Indian Ocean evolved rapidly as explorers returned with new data, leading to a cycle of copying and refinement. Maps were laboriously duplicated by hand, often in scriptoria or by skilled cartographers, with updates based on ships’ logs and pilot reports. The Casa da Índia in Lisbon centralized this effort, producing charts for navigators that spread across Europe through trade and espionage. For instance, the Cantino Planisphere was itself a copy smuggled to Italy, illustrating how maps circulated and were replicated.

As Portuguese influence waned, other powers like the Dutch, French, and British copied these maps, introducing their own nomenclature. In the Chagos, French colonization in the 18th century led to names like Île du Coin and Île Boddam in Peros Banhos -

 Peros Banhos Atoll

and Salomon Islands, reflecting their administrative control after 1715, when they renamed Mauritius “Île de France.” These French names overlaid earlier Portuguese ones, creating a layered nomenclature that persisted in later British maps after 1814.

The process of duplication wasn’t always precise, leading to errors or embellishments. For example, the Chagos was sometimes conflated with nearby reefs or mislabeled due to its chaotic atoll arrangement, unlike the more structured Maldives. By the 19th century, hydrographic surveys, such as those by Robert Moresby in 1834–36, produced more accurate charts of both the Maldives and Chagos, correcting earlier inaccuracies but retaining many Portuguese and French names.

Renaming Islands: Portuguese and French Influence

The naming of islands in the Chagos Archipelago reflects a blend of Portuguese exploration and French colonial administration:

• Portuguese Names:

  • Bassas de Chagas: Applied to the entire archipelago by the early 16th century, reflecting religious symbolism.

  • Peros Banhos: Named after Pêro dos Banhos, a navigator whose ship ran aground, recorded as early as 1538 in Portuguese charts.

  • Diego Garcia: Likely named after Diego García de Moguer in 1544, though possibly a misnomer from “Diego” or “Deo Gracias.” The name persisted despite copying errors in British maps.

• French Names:

  • Île du Coin, Île Pierre (Peros Banhos): Introduced during French control in the late 18th century, reflecting plantation-era naming.

  • Île Boddam (Salomon Islands): Named during French administration, possibly after a settler or official.

  • Egmont Islands, Eagle Islands: Later French and British names, supplanting earlier Portuguese terms like “Three Brothers” for some atolls.

Post-colonial hydrographic surveys, particularly by the British after 1814, saw increased map copying and standardization. Moresby’s 1834–36 surveys, published as Admiralty Charts, refined these names, blending Portuguese, French, and new English terms (e.g., “Nelson’s Island”). The potential for renaming arose as colonial powers sought administrative coherence, but many original names endured due to navigational familiarity. Maldivian names like “Fōlhavahi” for the Chagos were rarely included, though oral traditions and a 1561 letter from Maldive King Hassan IX suggest local claims to the archipelago.

Incorporation of Local Knowledge and Indigenous Maps

While Portuguese maps were primarily European constructs, they occasionally incorporated Indigenous knowledge. Maldivian pilots, familiar with monsoon winds and reefs, guided explorers like da Gama, and their insights likely shaped early depictions of the Maldives. The Chagos, known locally as “Fōlhavahi” or “Hollhavai,” was used by Maldivian fishermen, but European cartographers largely ignored these names, favoring their own.

Indigenous maps, such as Maldivian nautical charts or oral traditions, existed but were ephemeral, often unrecorded in European archives. The 1561 letter from Hassan IX, preserved in Lisbon, refers to the Chagos as “Pullobay,” indicating local awareness of the atolls as part of Maldivian territory. Some French and British maps later integrated local names for practical purposes, especially in the Maldives, but the Chagos remained peripheral, with European names dominating due to its lack of permanent settlement.

Post-Colonial Cartographic Developments

After the decline of Portuguese influence, post-colonial cartography in the Indian Ocean saw increased hydrographic activity, particularly by the British. Moresby’s surveys of the Maldives and Chagos in the 1830s produced detailed charts, widely copied and used by the Royal Navy. These maps prioritized accuracy for navigation and colonial administration, standardizing names like “Peros Banhos” and “Diego Garcia” while introducing new ones like “Salomon Islands.”  

The potential for renaming persisted as political control shifted. The British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT), formed in 1965, retained many historical names, but the expulsion of Chagossians and Mauritius’ sovereignty claims sparked debates over nomenclature. Recent UN resolutions (2019–21) affirming Mauritius’ claim may lead to further renaming, potentially reviving Maldivian or Chagossian names like “Fōlhavahi.”

Detailed Insights

• Cartographic Focus: Early Portuguese maps emphasized coastal hubs like Calicut and Malacca, with the Maldives included for their trade role. The Chagos appeared later, valued for navigation rather than settlement, as seen in Ribero’s 1529 chart.

• Map Copying: Duplication was common, with errors like mislabeling Diego Garcia reflecting hasty copying. The Casa da Índia’s secrecy led to maps being stolen or replicated, spreading Portuguese data to rivals.

• Renaming Dynamics: Portuguese names (e.g., “Bassas de Chagas”) gave way to French ones (e.g., “Île du Coin”) during the 18th century, with British surveys later blending both. Local names like “Fōlhavahi” were sidelined but persist in Maldivian lore.

• Indigenous Influence: Maldivian pilots shaped early maps indirectly, but formal Indigenous maps were rarely preserved. The Chagos’ marginal status limited local input compared to the Maldives.

British Period (19th Century Onwards): Transition to “Chagos Archipelago”

After the Napoleonic Wars, the Treaty of Paris in 1814 ceded Mauritius and its dependencies, including the Chagos, to the British Expulsion of the Chagossians - Wikipedia. The British adopted and Anglicized the name to “Chagos Archipelago,” derived from “Bassas de Chagas.” This name became standard in British maps and documents, with the archipelago administered from Mauritius until 1965 History | British Indian Ocean Territory.

During the 19th century, hydrographic surveys, such as Robert Moresby’s 1837–38 charts, formalized the name “Chagos Archipelago,” reflecting its geographical identity Chagos Archipelago - Wikipedia. The name “Oil Islands” was occasionally used informally, likely due to the copra plantations, but it was not widely adopted as the official name Chagos Archipelago - Wikipedia.

Modern Period: British Indian Ocean Territory and Ongoing Disputes

In 1965, the UK detached the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius to form the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT), primarily to establish a military base on Diego Garcia Chagos Archipelago sovereignty dispute - Wikipedia. The name “Chagos Archipelago” continued to be used for the geographical region, while “British Indian Ocean Territory” became the administrative designation. This dual naming reflects the archipelago’s strategic importance and colonial legacy.

Recent developments, including a 2019 International Court of Justice ruling and a 2024 agreement between the UK and Mauritius, have led to plans for Mauritius to regain control, excluding Diego Garcia, as of October 2024 Chagos Islands: UK’s last African colony returned to Mauritius | UN News. These negotiations highlight ongoing debates over sovereignty, with potential implications for renaming or reclaiming historical names like “Fōlhavahi.”

Table: Summary of Naming Evolution

Period	Name	Origin	Significance
Pre-Colonial	Fōlhavahi/Hollhavai	Maldivian oral tradition	Reflects local identity and maritime use
Portuguese (16th)	Bassas de Chagas	Portuguese explorers	First European name, religious symbolism
French (18th)	Bassas de Chagas	Adopted from Portuguese	Continued use during French colonial rule
British (19th–20th)	Chagos Archipelago	Anglicized from Portuguese	Standardized name under British administration
Modern	Chagos Archipelago	Historical continuity	Retained as geographical name; BIOT for admin

The evolution of the Chagos Archipelago’s name—from “Fōlhavahi” in Maldivian tradition to “Bassas de Chagas” under Portuguese and French rule, and finally to “Chagos Archipelago” under British administration—mirrors its colonial history and cultural shifts. The modern name “British Indian Ocean Territory” reflects its administrative status, while ongoing sovereignty disputes with Mauritius, as of April 12, 2025, may influence future naming discussions, potentially reviving local designations.

HOUSE OF COMMONS

The Cantino Planisphere is significant for showing the Maldives as “Maldiva,”

The first Portuguese maps of the Indian Ocean, like the Cantino Planisphere, Wikipedia - Cantino Planisphere  captured the Maldives but likely omitted the Chagos until later charts like Ribero’s 1529 Universal Chart included “Bassas de Chagas.” These maps, focused on trade routes, evolved through copying and renaming, with Portuguese names giving way to French and British ones in the Chagos. While local Maldivian names like “Fōlhavahi” reflect historical claims, European cartography dominated, blending minimal Indigenous knowledge with colonial priorities. Post-colonial surveys refined these maps, but debates over sovereignty and naming continue, underscoring cartography’s enduring role in shaping perceptions of the Indian Ocean.

Table: Summary of Key Historical Evidence Supporting Nasheed’s Claim

Evidence Type	Details	Source
Sultan Hassan IX Letter	Written in 1560, claims seven islands of Pullobay (Foalhavahi) as part of Maldives	Preserved in Portuguese archive in Lisbon, cited by Nasheed SunOnline International
Historical Maps	Maps from 1500s show Foalhavahi south of Addu Atoll, part of Maldivian territory	Mentioned by Nasheed, likely early Portuguese charts Chagos Archipelago - Wikipedia
Oral Traditions	Maldivians used Chagos for fishing, referred to as Fōlhavahi/Hollhavai	Part of Maldivian lore, supports historical connection The Hindu

President Mohamed Nasheed’s claim that Peros Banhos (Foalhavahi) is historically part of the Maldives is grounded in substantial historical evidence, including 16th-century maps and Sultan Hassan IX’s 1560 letter. His reference to “leaving lessons” in The Hindu underscores the need for Britain to learn from its colonial past, ensuring that decolonization of the Chagos Archipelago prioritizes marine conservation through collaboration with the Maldives and other nations. This perspective is set against ongoing sovereignty disputes with Mauritius and maritime border issues, highlighting the complex interplay of history, politics, and environmental concerns as of April 12, 2025.

Table: Summary of Key Players in Indian Ocean Trade Before European Dominance

Region/Entity	Key Players	Ports/Cities	Trade Goods
Ottoman Empire	Controlled Red Sea trade route	Aden	All Indian Ocean trade goods
Safavid Dynasty	Controlled Persian Gulf Route	Hormuz	-
Mughal Empire	Covered most of India, contended with Hindu governments	-	-
Hindu-controlled India	Kingdoms of Kozhikode, Cannanore, Cochin, Quilon	Calicut, Cannanore, Cochin, Quilon	Pepper, calico cloth
Muslim-controlled India	Goa, Cambay (Gujarat)	Goa, Cambay	Various merchandise
Swahili Coast (Africa)	City-states: Sofala, Mombasa, Kilwa, Zanzibar, etc.	Sofala, Mombasa, Kilwa, Zanzibar, etc.	Ivory, gold, slaves, frankincense, myrrh, copper, textiles, pottery, iron
Malacca (Malay Peninsula)	Major clearinghouse for spices	Malacca	Pepper, cloves, nutmeg, mace
Sri Lanka (Ceylon)	Buddhist, ruled by three rival kingdoms	Colombo	Cinnamon, gems, pearls, ivory, elephants, turtle shells, cloth
Spice Islands (Moluccas)	Ternate, Tidore, Banda Islands	Ternate, Tidore, Banda	Cloves, nutmeg, mace
Muslim Traders (General)	From Arabia, settled in Africa, India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Southeast Asia	-	Cotton, silk, porcelain

This table captures the diversity of players and goods, highlighting the complexity of the network.

Cartography in Colonial Era European Dominance

Cartography played a pivotal role in European colonial expansion during the colonial era (15th to 20th centuries), serving as both a practical tool and a political instrument. Maps were used to claim territories, assert dominance, and shape public perception, often depicting areas that cartographers had never seen. They were instrumental in visually representing and reinforcing the idea of empire, justifying colonial rule by presenting colonized lands as extensions of European territories.

• Political Control and Public Perception: Maps were not just navigational aids but tools for political control. They helped instill a sense of possession among colonizers. For example, John Lodge’s widely mass-produced map of Africa promoted visual ownership among British citizens, making the continent seem like a British domain Hyperallergic - How Cartography Helped Make Colonial Empires. The exhibition "Defining Lines: Cartography in the Age of Empire" at Duke University’s Nasher Museum of Art highlights how maps were used to "cut up the world" into territorial claims, often without the cartographers having visited the depicted regions Hyperallergic - How Cartography Helped Make Colonial Empires.

• Geographical Guessing and Bias: Colonial-era maps often included inaccuracies due to limited knowledge or deliberate distortion. For instance, the non-existent Mountains of Kong in West Africa appeared on maps from 1797 through the 19th century, illustrating how maps could perpetuate errors while ignoring local knowledge Hyperallergic - How Cartography Helped Make Colonial Empires. Maps were biased toward European interests, reflecting the agendas of mapmakers and their patrons, which helped justify

• colonial rule.

Southern Atolls: Huvadhoo and Addu in Pre-Suez Trade

• Huvadhoo Atoll:

  • Description: Huvadhoo Atoll, one of the largest atolls in the Maldives, spans about 80 km east-west and 55 km north-south, with over 250 islands, many inhabited, as detailed in Huvadhu Atoll - Wikipedia. Located at approximately 0°30′N, 73°20′E, it lies near the equator, making it a southern gateway.

  • Population and Resources: With numerous inhabited islands, Huvadhoo supported a significant population engaged in fishing, coir production, and trade. Its lagoons provided sheltered anchorages, ideal for ships seeking respite Geography of the Maldives - Wikipedia.

  • Trade Role: Huvadhoo’s inhabitants traded cowrie shells (Cypraea moneta), a key currency in Asia and Africa, and coir rope, essential for ship rigging, with passing vessels. Its position made it a frequent stop for ships heading to East Africa or India Indian Ocean Trade Routes - ThoughtCo.

• Addu Atoll:

  • Description: Addu Atoll, the southernmost atoll in the Maldives at 0°38′S, 73°09′E, includes Meedhoo and is 540 km south of Malé. It’s closer to the Chagos Archipelago (523 km to Peros Banhos, known as Foalhavahi) than to the Maldivian capital Addu Atoll - Wikipedia.

  • Meedhoo and Foalhavahi Connection: Meedhoo, an inhabited island in Addu Atoll, was a base for fishermen who ventured to Foalhavahi (Chagos), 300 miles south, as noted in The U.K. and ‘leaving lessons’ from the Indian Ocean - The Hindu. A 1561 letter from Sultan Hassan IX claims Foalhavahi as part of the Maldives, reinforcing this link Chagos Archipelago - Wikipedia.

  • Strategic Importance: Addu’s natural harbor at Gan and its proximity to Foalhavahi made it a key stop. Its role grew during British rule, with a naval base established in

  • 1941, but pre-Suez, it served as a maritime hub Addu City - Wikipedia.

  
  
  
  

• For centuries, the Maldives considered the Chagos Archipelago as an extension of its maritime territory. Maldivians referred to the archipelago as “Fōlhavahi” or “Hollhavai” (Dhivehi: ފޯޅަވަހި or ހޮއްޅަވައި), reflecting its cultural and geographical significance. Maldivian fishermen used the atolls for fishing expeditions, camping on the islands to catch, cook, smoke, and dry fish, as noted in historical lore Chagos Archipelago - Wikipedia. The proximity, with Peros Banhos just 300 miles from Addu Atoll, reinforced this connection The U.K. and ‘leaving lessons’ from the Indian Ocean - The Hindu.

• Sultan Hassan IX’s Letter (1560): The letter from Sultan Hassan IX, also known as Dom Manoel, is a pivotal document. Written while in exile in Cochin (now Kochi, India), it describes himself as the “King of the Maldive islands, including seven of the islands of Pullobay,” referring to Fōlhavahi or the Chagos Archipelago. This letter, preserved in a Portuguese archive in Lisbon, explicitly claims the Chagos as part of the Maldives, providing direct evidence of historical sovereignty Chagos Archipelago - Wikipedia.

In contrast, “Fōlhavahi” represents a parallel narrative rooted in Maldivian maritime culture, where the Chagos was an extension of the Maldives’ domain, used by fishermen and referenced in a 1561 letter from Sultan Hassan IX as “Pullobay.” This Indigenous name, sidelined by European cartographers, underscores a history of connection disrupted by colonial interventions, from Portuguese naming to the forced expulsion of the Chagossians between 1968 and 1973 to establish a US military base. The marginalization of “Fōlhavahi” mirrors the broader erasure of local voices, yet its persistence in Maldivian oral traditions and modern claims by figures like former President Mohamed Nasheed highlights its enduring relevance.

As of April 12, 2025, the Chagos Archipelago’s sovereignty dispute, with Mauritius gaining recognition following a 2019 ICJ ruling and a 2024 UK-Mauritius agreement, brings “Fōlhavahi” back into focus. Nasheed’s assertion that Peros Banhos and the broader Chagos were historically Maldivian territory challenges the colonial legacy embedded in names like “Diego Garcia,” raising questions about maritime boundaries and the Maldives’ Exclusive Economic Zone. These shifts signal a potential reclamation of Indigenous nomenclature, as Mauritius’ impending control (excluding Diego Garcia) may open avenues for renaming or acknowledging local names. The resonance of “Fōlhavahi” amidst these developments reflects a broader reckoning with colonial histories, where cartographic tales are not merely historical artifacts but active forces in shaping identity, sovereignty, and environmental stewardship.

This unfolding narrative bridges past and present, illustrating how names carry the weight of exploration, conquest, and resistance. Diego Garcia’s fluid cartographic journey, marked by European impositions, contrasts with “Fōlhavahi’s” quiet persistence, a reminder of the Maldives’ historical stake in the Chagos. As modern sovereignty debates evolve, the interplay of these names underscores the enduring impact of cartography on geopolitics, urging a reexamination of how we define and claim the spaces of our world. Whether through the lens of a Portuguese chart or a Maldivian fisherman’s lore, the story of Diego Garcia and Fōlhavahi remains a testament to the power of names to both divide and unite across time.