The Story of the Transatlantic Journey of Cowrie Shells: From Maldives to Virginia, USA
- Ibrahim Rasheed
- Jul 28
- 9 min read
Updated: Sep 1
The Maldives, despite its small land area of about 298 km², is indeed a Large ocean state
with a maritime territory spanning roughly 923,322 km². Its 1,192 coral islands, grouped into 26 atolls, stretch across the Indian Ocean, historically extending influence to the Chagos Archipelago (Foalhavahi) in the pre-colonial era. This strategic position made the Maldives a significant hub for maritime trade and cultural exchange.In the pre-colonial period, the Maldives was a key player in the Indian Ocean trade network,
Particularly known for the cowrie shell (Cypraea moneta). These shells were harvested in vast quantities from Maldivian waters and served as a form of currency across Asia, Africa, and even parts of Europe.
While cowrie shells were a significant export from the Maldives, they were not the only valuable goods traded. Ambergris,( Maavaharu) a substance produced by sperm whales, "floating gold,"was another highly prized commodity, sometimes even more valuable than gold by weight due to its use in perfumery
In addition, the Maldives exported dried skipjack tuna, known as "Maldive fish," and coir rope, both crucial to its economy. Coir was traded across the Indian Ocean, including to Arab, Indian, and East African markets, where it was prized for its durability.
Copra production complemented coir, as both utilized different parts of the coconut, maximizing the economic output of the Maldives’ coconut plantations.
The name "Maldives," historically linked to "Maal Diva" or similar forms, likely derives from a blend of linguistic influences reflecting the islands’ role as a trade hub. The term "Maal" (or "Mal") may indeed trace back to Classical Persian māl (wealth, property) or Arabic māl (wealth, goods), which aligns with the Maldives’ historical significance in Indian Ocean trade, particularly through cowrie shells used as currency. This etymology is plausible given the archipelago’s interactions with Persian, Arab, and South Asian traders."Diva" (or "Dweepa" in Sanskrit) means "island" in several South Asian languages, including Maldivian Dhivehi, pointing to the islands’ geographic identity. The combination "Maal Diva" could thus signify "islands of wealth"މާލުވެރިކަން or "trading islands," reflecting their economic prominence in the pre-colonial cowrie trade and broader maritime networks.
From Maldives to Virginia: The Atlantic Voyage of Cowrie Shells
The journey of cowrie shells from the Maldives in the Indian Ocean to Virginia in the USA is a compelling narrative of global trade, cultural exchange, and the transatlantic slave trade, reflecting the interconnectedness of economic and cultural systems during the colonial era. This detailed examination, informed by historical records, archaeological findings, and scholarly research, provides a comprehensive understanding of their movement and significance.
Origin and Collection in the Maldives
Cowrie shells, particularly Monetaria moneta (money cowrie) and Monetaria annulus, were primarily sourced from the Maldives, an archipelago in the Indian Ocean. These shells, belonging to the family Cypraeidae, were abundant in the region's tropical waters and were collected for their durability, portability, and distinctive glossy appearance. Historical records indicate their use as currency and trade items dates back to 1000 B.C.E. in China, with the Classical Chinese character for money (貝) originating from a stylized drawing of a cowrie shell, as noted in Wikipedia's Shell Money page. In India, cowries were used as currency by the 4th century C.E., and their trade extended to Southeast Asia and East Africa, setting the stage for their global significance.
The Maldives was a major hub for cowrie collection, with archaeological evidence, such as finds in Lothal (Indus Valley Civilization) and a 7,000-year-old skull from Jericho with cowrie shells as eyes, highlighting their long history. The National Maritime Historical Society notes that by 850 C.E., Arabian and other international traders recognized the Maldives as a convenient port, blessed with prolific cowrie populations, which became the first truly global, cross-cultural currency.
Trade Routes to West Africa
From the Maldives, cowrie shells were traded across the Indian Ocean and through established trade networks, including trans-Saharan routes, to reach West Africa. By the 14th century, they were in use as currency in West African societies, such as the Mali Empire, as documented by Ibn Battuta, as mentioned in ADP ReThink Q's article. The Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History highlights that local shell money was adopted as early as the 10th century along the Niger River, with cowrie shells from the Indian Ocean shipped via the Mediterranean.
In West Africa, cowrie shells served multiple purposes beyond currency. They were used for self-adornment, often modified by slicing or piercing for stringing and weaving into hair or clothing, and held cultural significance as symbols of status, fertility, beauty, and ceremonial garb. The National Museum of African American History and Culture notes that King Gezo of Dahomey (modern Benin) preferred cowries to gold for their fair pricing, emphasizing their economic and political importance, as they were almost impossible to counterfeit and appeared in standard weights.
The trade expanded significantly with European involvement. From the 16th century, European merchants, led by the Portuguese, initiated the cowrie slave trade and palm oil trade by shipping Maldivian shells through Europe to West Africa. This reshaped the cowrie monetary zone, creating a network that connected the Indian Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, as detailed in "Cowries, the currency that powered West Africa" (ADP ReThink Q, 2023). Caravans of Arab traders are thought to have introduced cowries into West Africa as early as the 8th century, but their circulation as money intensified in the 15th century with European trade, with at least 30 billion cowries imported to the Bight of Benin between 1500 and 1875, accounting for 44% of the total value of trade, as per Wikipedia's Shell Money.
Role in the Transatlantic Slave Trade
Cowrie shells became integral to the transatlantic slave trade, serving as currency for European merchants to purchase enslaved Africans. Historical accounts, such as those in "Cowrie Shells by Santana Alvarado – Hope Beyond Despair," highlight their role as "blood money." For example, Olaudah Equiano was sold for 172 "little white shells," as noted in shipping records like the 1761 list of goods imported to the Isle of Man via Rotterdam for trade in Africa (Manx National Heritage, URL: https://manxnationalheritage.im/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/info-sheet-The-Isle-of-Man-and-the-Transatlantic-Slave-Trave.pdf).
The trade involved shipping cowrie shells from the Maldives to Europe and then to West Africa, where they were used to buy enslaved people, gold, and other goods. This transoceanic network connected two oceans and two worlds (the Old and New Worlds), as discussed in the Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History. The shells' small size, lightweight nature, and resistance to counterfeiting made them ideal for trade, with monetary value calculated by quantity, as seen in West African markets where a single slave could sell for 25,000 cowries in Bengal, as per Wikipedia's Shell Money.
Transportation to the Americas:
Cowrie shells reached the Americas, including Virginia, through multiple pathways during the transatlantic slave trade
On the Bodies of Enslaved Africans: Many enslaved Africans brought cowrie shells as personal items, often incorporated into their hair, clothing, or as necklaces. These shells carried cultural and spiritual significance from their West African origins, reflecting their use in rituals, as amulets, and in divination practices, as noted in "Cowries, the currency that powered West Africa" (ADP ReThink Q, URL: https://rethinkq.adp.com/artifact-cowries-west-africa/).
As Trade Goods or Ballast: Cowrie shells were sometimes included in the cargo of slave ships, either as trade goods or as ballast to stabilize the vessels during the Middle Passage. The article "Small seashells tell a big story of slavery and transoceanic trade 500 years ago" (The Conversation, 2021, URL: https://theconversation.com/small-seashells-tell-a-big-story-of-slavery-and-transoceanic-trade-500-years-ago-166363) mentions their presence in shipwrecks, such as the São Bento, suggesting they were part of larger shipments.
During the Middle Passage, cowrie shells were sometimes distributed as pacifiers to enslaved Africans, further embedding them in the cultural fabric of the Americas. The Lives & Legacies blog (2024, URL: https://livesandlegaciesblog.org/2024/07/24/cowrie-shells-cultural-and-economic-ties-in-the-18th-century-atlantic-world/) notes their transportation on slave ships, often as leftovers of M. annulus, highlighting their role in the brutal trade networks.
Arrival and Distribution in Virginia
In colonial Virginia, cowrie shells have been archaeologically recovered from sites such as Hampton and Yorktown, dating from 1720 to 1740. The Lives & Legacies article "Cowrie Shells: Cultural and Economic Ties in the 18th-Century Atlantic World" (2024, URL: https://livesandlegaciesblog.org/2024/07/24/cowrie-shells-cultural-and-economic-ties-in-the-18th-century-atlantic-world/) provides detailed findings
Cowrie shells were discovered at various sites, including the Rison Hotel (now Landing Hotel) and Old Point Bank, as well as other locations in downtown Hampton and Yorktown. These shells were predominantly found in the Tidewater region, with urban areas like Yorktown having a higher concentration (252 shells), while plantations had fewer.
Quantity and Use: With over 353 shells found archaeologically, this number is not enough to indicate their use as currency. Rather, they were probably utilized for adornment, ritual purposes, and as symbols of cultural loss, memory, and survival, being discovered in burials, spirit caches, and sub-floor pits.
Specific Examples: At Ferry Farm, two M. annulus shells were discovered, altered for stringing or weaving, in areas surrounding the Washington House (such as the root cellar). These shells were probably possessed by enslaved people residing or working near the Washington family, possibly in the Quarter or support buildings in the work yard.
The arrival of cowrie shells in Virginia can be attributed to the movement of enslaved people or the proximity of ports like Fredericksburg, which accessed regional and trans-Atlantic trade networks. The Monticello Archaeology Department and Thomas Jefferson Foundation research notes their presence at Monticello, suggesting their role in carrying African identities across the Atlantic, as per Monticello's encyclopedia (URL: https://www.monticello.org/research-education/thomas-jefferson-encyclopedia/cowrie-shell/).
Cultural Significance in African and African American Communities
In African cultures, cowrie shells held deep cultural and spiritual meanings. They symbolized wealth, power, fertility, protection, and were used in rituals, as protective amulets, and in traditional healing practices. The Art Institute of Chicago notes their use in Yoruba Orisha traditions, Vodou, and Candomblé, where they represented ancestral connections and spiritual power. B.Eclectic (2022) highlights their role in promoting fertility and protecting women during childbirth, symbolizing femininity, as per their blog (URL: [invalid url, do not cite]). Their white color and maritime origin were linked to ancestry and healing, as discussed in the Cambridge Archaeological Journal (URL: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/cambridge-archaeological-journal/article/divining-value-cowries-the-ancestral-realm-and-the-global-in-southern-africa/54B95F341407D84426DED39F7A61C853).
In the Americas, cowrie shells continued to hold cultural significance. They were worn in hairstyles and attire, reflecting Black culture and identity, as seen in modern fashion and art. For example, Beyoncé, Alicia Keys, and Solange Knowles have incorporated cowrie shells into their music videos and albums, symbolizing cultural resilience and pride, as noted in Vogue (URL: https://www.vogue.com/article/affordable-shell-necklace) and The New Yorker (URL: https://www.newyorker.com/culture/culture-desk/solange-knowless-album-of-black-life-in-america).
Economic and Political Context
While cowrie shells were primarily economic commodities in West Africa and during the slave trade, their role in Virginia was more cultural than economic. In West Africa, they legitimized kingdoms through taxes and gifts, as seen with King Gezo of Dahomey, and were central to European trade strategies, as per the National Museum of African American History and Culture (URL: https://nmaahc.si.edu/cowrie-shells-and-trade-power). However, in Virginia, their limited quantity (not enough for currency) suggests they were not used for economic transactions but rather as cultural artifacts, as detailed in "Stringing Together Cowrie Shells in the African Archaeological Record with Special Reference to Southern Africa" (Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 2021, URL: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10816-021-09539-1).
British East India Company and Cowrie Abolition
Abolition in 1805:
In 1805, the EIC, seeking to consolidate control over the economy and standardize currency in its territories, abolished the use of cowrie shells as legal tender in Odisha and parts of Bengal. The EIC replaced cowries with copper pice and other metallic currencies to align with colonial monetary systems and facilitate tax collection. This disrupted local economies, as cowries were deeply embedded in everyday transactions, particularly among rural and lower-income communities.
Economic Impact: The abolition increased economic hardship for many in Odisha, as cowries were more accessible than metallic coins, which were often scarce. The shift also undermined traditional trade networks, including those linked to the Maldives, as demand for cowrie shells declined. Additionally, the EIC’s land revenue policies, such as the Permanent Settlement, imposed high taxes and alienated local landholders, further straining the economy.
Period | Event | Key Locations/Contexts |
1000 B.C.E. | Early use as currency in China | China |
14th Century | Use as currency in West Africa, noted by Ibn Battuta | West Africa (Mali) |
16th Century | European initiation of cowrie slave trade, shipping through Europe to West Africa | Europe, West Africa, Atlantic World |
1720–1740 | Archaeological findings in Virginia, including Hampton and Yorktown | Virginia (Hampton, Yorktown) |
19th Century | Decline due to inflation and metallic currencies, e.g., Paik Rebellion (1817) | Global, particularly West Africa |
Summary
The story of cowrie shells is a fascinating tale of global connections, blending economic use, cultural importance, and the changes brought by colonial actions. Coming from the Maldives, a key player in Indian Ocean trade, cowrie shells (Cypraea moneta and Cypraea annulus) were a crucial currency in Asia and Africa, supporting local economies in places like Odisha, Bengal, Burma,(Port Martaban) and Siam (Thailand). Their worth came from being rare, durable, and attractive, and the Maldives’ strong maritime skills made them a major supplier in a huge trade network. Along with cowries, the Maldives exported items like ambergris, coir, and Maldive fish, connecting local producers to far-off markets. Beyond their economic role, cowries held spiritual and social meaning as symbols of wealth, fertility, and status in societies from South Asia to West Africa. Their journey across the Atlantic to Virginia, driven by Indian Ocean trade and the slave trade, shows how they linked continents and cultures. But when the British East India Company stopped using cowries as money in 1805, it upset these complex systems, hurting local economies and reducing the Maldives’ economic importance. Still, the lasting legacy of cowrie shells, seen in archaeological finds and historical records, highlights their role as a powerful symbol of a pre-colonial world rich in trade and cultural exchange. The story of cowrie shells, tied to Maldivian exports and global trade routes, is a reminder of how small objects can shape a deeply connected global history.