"King of the Maldive Islands and of the Three Patanas of Cuaydu, & Seven Islands of Pullobay": Tribute, Exile, and the Lasting Claim of Dom Manoel's Line Until 1687

The tribute-funded 'Kingship' of the Maldives in Goa Exile features a collection of ambergris, cowrie shells, and gold coins displayed on an intricately designed wooden table.

In the 17th century, the Portuguese Estado da India sustained a fragile network of economic and symbolic influence across the Indian Ocean, often relying on indirect mechanisms rather than direct military control. One of the most anomalous arrangements concerned the Maldives, where a line of Catholic exiles in Goa, descendants of Sultan Hasan IX (who converted to Christianity in 1552 and became Dom Manoel), maintained a purely titular claim to sovereignty over the archipelago. This nominal kingship was sustained by a modest but enforced tribute from Maldivian merchant ships trading in Portuguese ports, enabling Dom Philippe (Dom Manuel's grandson, nominal ruler ca. 1603–1632) to lead a comfortable life in Goa, even as real authority in Malé rested with local regents and sultans. The system persisted, though with steadily diminishing effectiveness, through the mid-17th century, including the reign of Sultan Ibrahim Iskandar I (r. 1648–1687), before fading amid Portuguese decline and Maldivian consolidation under the Utheemu dynasty.

Origins in the Hilali Dynasty's Chaos: Assassination, Conversion, and Nominal Restoration

The tribute system's roots lie in the violent succession struggles of the Hilali dynasty (1388–1632). Sultan Mohamed III (Mohamed Singa Bavana, r. 1549–1551), son of Sultan Kalhu Muhammad Hilali (r. intermittently 1491–1528), was assassinated in 1551 by his brother Hassan IX. Hasan IX briefly ascended but converted to Christianity in Cochin, becoming Dom Manoel and fleeing to Portuguese protection. Deposed in 1552, he triggered the first interregnum (1552–1555), ruled by a council of ministers. Kanba Aisha Ranikilege (Kaba Aisha Rani Kilege), daughter of Kalu Muhammad and wife of Sultan Ali IV (Ali Rasgefaanu / Ali Heneve Ras Kilege, r. ca. 1540s–1551), emerged as an influential figure. As queen mother and widow, she likely wielded power during the interregnum, though allegations of her orchestrating Mohamed III's murder remain speculative and unconfirmed in primary chronicles like Hassan Tajuddin's Tarikh Islām Dībā Maḥal. Her daughter Sitti Rani Kilege (Sitthi Maryam Ma'ava'a Kuda Kamanafa'anu Rani Kilege) married Al-Amir Hassan Thakurufa'anu Khatib (brother of Muhammad Thakurufaanu al-Auzam), linking the Hilali line to the Utheemu family that later expelled Portuguese influence.

Portuguese ships, approach the shores of Malé in 1558, heralding the invasion led by Andiri Andirin (Andreas Andre) that resulted in the assassination of Sultan Ali IV.

In 1558, Portuguese-backed forces under Andiri Andirin (Andreas Andre) invaded Malé, assassinated Sultan Ali IV (or a successor), and nominally reinstated Dom Manoel. He never returned; Andiri Andirin governed as regent until 1573, a period Maldivian accounts describe as oppressive.

The 1573 Turning Point: Thakurufaanu's Victory and the Treaty

Resistance culminated in 1573 when Muhammad Thakurufaanu al-Auzam assassinated Andiri Andirin, expelling Portuguese forces, a victory celebrated as Maldives' National Day. Thakurufaanu initially allied with the Ali Raja of Cannanore but, fearing annexation, concluded a treaty with Dom Manoel: the Goa-based monarch retained titular kingship, while Thakurufaanu and his brother served as co-regents. This pragmatic compromise allowed the Maldives to repel Cannanore threats with Portuguese backing while preserving local autonomy.

Dom Manoel lived as a practicing Catholic in Goa, supported by tribute from Maldivian merchants docking at Portuguese ports (Goa, Cochin, Cannanore). The levy, paid by ships carrying cowries, coir, dried fish ("Maldive fish"), and other goods, was not a formal tax on the Maldives but enforced as recognition of "lawful sovereignty." Upon Dom Manoel's death in 1583, Thakurufaanu attempted to claim the throne outright, but Portuguese pressure enforced the treaty, naming Dom João (Dom Manoel's son) as king in absentia

The Tribute in Practice: Dom Philippe's Comfortable Exile

Dom João, raised Catholic, married Donna Francisca Vasconelles and fathered Dom Philippe (nominal r. ca. 1603–1632). The tribute became the exiled kings' economic lifeline. Pietro Della Valle, who met Dom Philippe in Goa in 1623–1624, provided the most vivid account. Watching a religious procession from Dom Philippe's house on Saint Paul's Street, Della Valle described the Maldives as "an innumerable company of small islands" ruled nominally through a regent in Malé. Amused by the irony, he noted the Portuguese "never attempted anything on his behalf," leaving only a "naked title." Yet tribute from Maldivian merchant ships, enforced by port governors, yielded a steady income.

"...they force the said ships to pay a small matter of tribute to him as their lawful sovereign, of whom the governors of ports... purloin above half from him; nevertheless he gets at this day by it about three hundred thousand crowns yearly, and therewith supports himself."

Three hundred thousand crowns (likely Portuguese cruzados, worth millions of réis) was substantial, enough for a noble household with servants, housing, clothing, and luxuries in colonial Goa, despite alleged embezzlement. The tribute reflected the Maldives' niche role: cowries as currency, coir for shipping, "Maldive fish" as exports. Maldivian dhonis regularly visited Portuguese ports, enabling collection without occupation.

Continuation Through Muhammad Imad ud-din I and Ibrahim Iskandar I

During Sultan Muhammad Imad ud-din I (Bodu Rasgefaanu / Kalu Thukkala, r. 1620–1648), the tribute system persisted, though weakened. Imad ud-din I ruled during Maldivian consolidation under Utheemu successors, with regents and councils managing affairs. Della Valle's 1623–1624 observation aligns with Imad ud-din I's early reign, when Goa exiles' income remained viable despite Portuguese decline.

The system continued under Imad ud-din I's son Sultan Ibrahim Iskandar I (r. 1648–1687), one of the most prominent 17th-century rulers. Ibrahim Iskandar I strengthened Maldivian sovereignty, repelling external threats and centralizing power. Tribute levies on Maldivian ships in Portuguese ports likely persisted into his early reign, as Goa officials continued enforcing them for economic gain. However, Portuguese influence waned rapidly: the Dutch captured Ceylon (1658) and other strongholds, reducing Portugal's ability to extract tribute. By the 1650s–1660s, the Goa exiles' income diminished significantly, and the failed 1650 expedition by Dom Luís de Souza and Dom Malaviz marked the end of active claims.

The Failed Expedition of Dom Manoel's Grandchildren to Capture Malé

The most dramatic late attempt to enforce the Goa claim occurred ca. 1650 (early in Ibrahim Iskandar I's reign). Dom Manoel's grandchildren, Dom Luís de Souza and Dom Malaviz (Dom Manoel Malavis / de Malvidas), great-grandsons via Dona Inez, assembled a small armed fleet in Goa (likely with volunteers, mercenaries, and personal resources) and sailed to the Maldives to capture Malé

Map showing the geographical location of the Maldives and Chagos archipelagos in the Indian Ocean, positioned southwest of India and Sri Lanka.

Maldivian forces under Ibrahim Iskandar I repelled the invaders with fierce resistance. Dom Malaviz was killed in the fighting, some accounts specify during the assault on the capital. Dom Luís survived the battle but was wounded or forced to flee. He returned to Goa but faced further setbacks: in October 1653, he was implicated in a plot to depose the Viceroy of Goa, leading to arrest or marginalization. Some traditions suggest he was later recaptured by Maldivian forces or allies. Held in Huraa (Huraa Island), Malé Atoll, he married a local woman and fathered Dom Maraduru (later titled Fandiaiy Kaleygefan). Dom Maraduru integrated into Maldivian society and became an ancestor of the Huraa Dynasty (House of Huraagey), which rose in the 18th century under Muhammad Imaaduddin VI (r. 1779–1799) and continued until the 1968 republic.

Dom Luís's final fate came in 1656: while transported under custody to Lisbon (likely after his Goa plot or renewed capture), his ship sank, causing his death. This ended his claim and marked the effective conclusion of the Goa-based Christian line's attempts to seize power.

Decline and Enduring Irony

By Ibrahim Iskandar I's later years, the tribute system had largely collapsed. Portuguese power eroded, and Maldivian rulers no longer tolerated symbolic payments. The Goa family assimilated into local Catholic society, with the last known member dying bankrupt in Lisbon.

Della Valle's account of the "three hundred thousand crowns" tribute captures poignant irony: an exiled "king" sustained by commerce from islands he never ruled, while Portuguese governors profited. The failed 1650 expedition during Ibrahim Iskandar I's reign underscores the complete erosion of Portuguese influence and Maldivian resilience. Dom Philippe's comfortable exile, funded by enforced tribute through the reigns of Muhammad Imad ud-din I and Ibrahim Iskandar I, remains a curious footnote to the Maldives' enduring Islamic sovereignty and Portugal's fading imperial reach.