The Great Chinese Treasure Ships: Zheng He’s Seven Expeditions (1405–1433): Mastering the Indian Ocean and the Maldives a century Before Portuguese Arrival
- Ibrahim Rasheed
- May 2
- 6 min read
Zheng He’s remarkable voyages to the Maldives during the early 15th century are well-documented through his meticulously crafted sailing charts and the detailed accounts penned by his crew members, most notably Ma Huan. In his work, Yingya Shenglan, Ma Huan provides insightful descriptions of the region, illustrating not only the geography but also the cultural and economic significance of the Maldives during that period.
the Chinese name "Liushan" (溜山) used in Zheng He’s records, such as the Yingya Shenglan by Ma Huan and the Mao Kun map, refers to the Maldives. The term was employed during the 15th century to denote the Maldives in Ming dynasty document
Zheng He’s Voyages to the Maldives
Zheng He’s fleet visited the Maldives during five voyages—third (1409–1411), fourth (1413–1415), fifth (1417–1419), sixth (1421–1422), and seventh (1430–1433)—referred to as "Liushan" (琉山), meaning “a country of underwater mountains,” reflecting the coral atolls’ topography (Ministry of Commerce). These visits, documented in Chinese sources, highlight the Maldives’ role as a strategic trade hub:
Third Voyage (1409–1411): The Taizong Shilu lists the Maldives among 18 countries visited, though details are sparse. This voyage included a conflict in Sri Lanka, where Zheng He captured King Alakeshvara, but no evidence suggests a Maldives stop on the return to Nanjing on July 6, 1411 (Ming treasure voyages - Wikipedia).
Fourth Voyage (1413–1415): Ma Huan’s Yingya Shenglan provides detailed accounts of the Maldives, noting its Muslim population, trade in cowrie shells, dried fish, coconuts, tortoise shells, and ambergris, and its role as a stopover after Calicut and before Hormuz (Ma Huan - Wikipedia).
Fifth Voyage (1417–1419): The Taizong Shilu records a Maldives stop, coinciding with King Yusof’s (likely Sultan Hassan I) ambassadorial mission to Nanjing in 1417, facilitated by Zheng He (China-Maldives relations).
Sixth Voyage (1421–1422): The Maldives was visited as part of a broader Indian Ocean route, with trade and navigation emphasized in historical records.
Seventh Voyage (1430–1433): Ma Huan’s presence suggests detailed observations, with the Mingshi confirming a Maldives stop, reinforcing trade ties.
The name "Liushan," Maldives which translates to "the islands of underwater mountains," prominently appears in these historical records, indicating its recognized status as a vital location for diplomatic relations and trade activities within the broader context of Zheng He’s expeditions. For instance, during the fourth voyage from 1413 to 1415, Zheng He’s grand fleet made a significant stop at the Maldives, referred to as "Liushan" in the records, where they engaged in extensive trading and navigation activities. This information has been corroborated by various scholarly sources, including the Association for Asian Studies, which highlights the importance of these voyages in establishing connections between China and the Indian Ocean region, particularly through their reference to Zheng He’s travels to the so-called "West Oceans."
Furthermore, the diplomatic mission undertaken in 1417, where King Yusof of the Maldives in 1417 CE likely,( Sultan Hassan I) was a significant ruler who sent an ambassador to China, marking an important diplomatic exchange during the Ming dynasty. This relationship was not merely transactional but also symbolic, as "Liushan" (Maldives ) was the name utilized in official Chinese records to denote this island nation, reflecting its recognized status in the eyes of the Chinese empire. Such diplomatic exchanges facilitated not only the flow of goods but also cultural exchanges, as the Maldives became increasingly intertwined with the political and economic fabric of Ming China.
The term "a country of underwater mountains" serves a dual purpose, functioning both as a descriptive identifier and as a navigational aid for Chinese mariners. This phrase likely helped Chinese navigators to pinpoint the Maldives with greater accuracy, given its distinctive underwater topography, which is characterized by a series of submerged mountains and reefs.
This geographical feature was crucial for safe maritime navigation in the often-treacherous waters of the Indian Ocean, further emphasizing Zheng He’s role as a pioneering cartographer and navigator.
His efforts in mapping and documenting foreign lands are exemplified by the Mao Kun map, which includes detailed sections dedicated to the Maldives, showcasing the meticulous nature of his explorations.
Zheng He’s records, particularly as presented in his sailing charts like the Mao Kun map, offer a wealth of information regarding the Maldives’ diverse products and local customs.
Zheng He: A Muslim Admiral and His Maritime Legacy
Zheng He (c. 1371–1433), originally named Ma He, was born into a Hui (Chinese Muslim) family in Yunnan Province, with his family name “Ma” reflecting the Islamic name Muhammad. His father and grandfather were hajjis, having completed the pilgrimage to Mecca, underscoring his Islamic heritage (Zheng He - Wikipedia). Captured as a boy during the Ming conquest of Yunnan, he was castrated and served as a eunuch in the imperial court, eventually earning the surname Zheng from the Yongle Emperor (r. 1403–1424). As a Muslim, Zheng He sought protection from Islamic saints during his voyages, such as those at Lingshan Hill in Quanzhou, while also honoring local deities, reflecting a syncretic approach (Admiral Zheng He's Voyages to the "West Oceans" - Association for Asian Studies).
Ma Huan and the Yingya Shenglan
Ma Huan’s Yingya Shenglan, completed around 1451, is a seminal travelogue documenting 20 countries visited during Zheng He’s voyages, from the Moluccas to Mecca. Written after his participation in the fourth, sixth, and seventh voyages, the book offers detailed observations on geography, culture, trade, and diplomacy, making it a critical source for understanding early modern maritime Asia (Yingya Shenglan - Wikipedia). Ma Huan’s fluency in Arabic and Persian, combined with his role as an imam, allowed him to engage with Muslim communities, such as those in the Maldives, and record their practices with nuance.
The original 1451 edition is lost, but later copies, such as the Guochao Diangu (1451–1644) and Columbia University’s version, preserve its content, albeit with editorial variations. The book includes a 1416 foreword and poem by Ma Huan, a 1444 foreword by Ma Jing, and a 1451 afterword by Gu Po, reflecting its evolving editorial history (Yingya shenglan - Chinaknowledge). Its detailed descriptions, translated by J.V.G. Mills in 1970, have been studied by scholars like Paul Pelliot and Wan Ming, underscoring its global historical significance (Ming chaoben “Yingyai shenglan” jiaozhu - Archipel).
Diplomatic and Trade Interactions
The Maldives’ interactions with Zheng He’s fleet were both diplomatic and economic. The 1417 mission by King Yusof, (Sultan Hassan I) documented in the Taizong Shilu, saw Maldivian envoys travel to Nanjing, likely exchanging gifts and establishing tributary relations (Close Friends and Partners for Development). Ma Huan’s Yingya Shenglan details the Maldives’ exports, such as ambergris, (Maavaharu) valued for perfumery, and cowrie shells, used as currency, traded for Chinese silk and porcelain. Archaeological finds in Malé, including 10th-century Chinese porcelain, corroborate these exchanges, displayed in the National Museum (China-Maldives relations).
Sri Lanka The Ming–Kotte War and the Maldives
During the third voyage, Zheng He clashed with King Alakeshvara of Kotte, Sri Lanka, in 1410–1411, capturing him after a military offensive. Historical records, including Yang Rong’s 1515 account, confirm Alakeshvara was taken to Nanjing, where he was pardoned and returned, with Parakramabahu VI installed as a pro-Chinese ruler (Ming–Kotte War - Wikipedia). Evidence suggests Zheng He stopped in the Maldives with Alakeshvara
Ma Huan’s Yingya Shenglan and other Chinese sources, like the Taizong Shilu and Mingshi, illuminate the Maldives’ role as a trade and diplomatic hub during Zheng He’s voyages. These records highlight the cultural and economic exchanges that shaped Sino-Maldivian relations, with Zheng He’s Muslim identity facilitating interactions with the Maldives’ Islamic community. The absence of a Maldives stop during the third voyage’s return with Alakeshvara underscores the distinct nature of each voyage’s objectives, from military action to trade and diplomacy.
Zheng He led seven monumental voyages, commanding a fleet of hundreds of ships, including massive treasure ships, and thousands of crew members. These expeditions traversed the South China Sea, Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Red Sea, and East African coast, aiming to extend China’s influence, promote trade, and establish diplomatic relations (Zheng He | Biography, Facts, & Significance | Britannica).
His death likely occurred in the year 1433 while at sea, in the expansive waters near China, during the return journey from his seventh and final voyage. This voyage was significant, as it marked the culmination of a series of grand maritime expeditions that had taken place over the preceding years, aimed at establishing trade routes and diplomatic relations across the Indian Ocean and beyond. The exact circumstances surrounding his death remain somewhat shrouded in mystery, with various historical accounts suggesting that he may have succumbed to illness or perhaps faced the perils of the tumultuous sea during the voyage. In honor of his remarkable contributions and legacy, a commemorative tomb was constructed in Nanjing, a city of great historical importance in China.
This tomb, located at Cattle Head Hill, serves not only as a resting place but also as a monument that reflects the profound respect and admiration for his achievements in exploration and navigation. The site attracts visitors and scholars alike, who come to pay homage and reflect on the impact of his journeys, which helped to bridge cultures and expand the horizons of the known world during that era.
now part of Zheng He Culture Park (Zheng He (1371-1433) - Find a Grave Memorial).
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